Fish constitutes a limited - and jeopardized - natural resource. Yet, in order to meet expanding demand from consumers and, consequently, industry, developed countries import ever increasing volumes of fish. While decommissioned vessels from Northern fleets are being transferred to the South to alleviate pressure on depleted European stocks, countries in the South are exporting more and more sea products to the North. In these conditions, how are the food requirements of impoverished populations, for whom fish is a vital source of protein, going to be met? The author argues that solutions do exist, although they entail a number of conditions: the
sharing of resources, protection of the environment, implementation of
measures for responsible fisheries, and integrated aquaculture. In addition, in order to develop an integrated form of aquaculture, the rights of fishworkers must be reinforced, since government policies bent on modernization and protection of natural resources often lead to their
marginalization. This book, based on over ten years' involvement with fishworkers' associations in the North and South, provides an overview of fisheries and makes proposals for the integration of social aspects in a new fishing policy. It will be of interest to all those who are keen to develop their environmental awareness and are concerned about the welfare of fishworkers.

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A Livelihood from Fishing

Globalization and Sustainable Fisheries Policies

By Alain Le Sann

Practical Action Publishing Ltd

FOREWORD, ix, 
PREFACE, x, 
SECTION 1 FISHERIES TODAY, 1, 
Fish is an essential food, 3, 
Consumption levels are unequal, 5, 
The productivity of oceans varies, 7, 
Increasing production is not enough, 9, 
Fish is fed to livestock, 11, 
Japan is now a shaky giant, 13, 
Canada's west-coast fishery, 15, 
Opportunities from the sea, 17, 
Threats from the land, 19, 
China emerges as a fishing power, 21, 
In the South, fishing is on the rise, 23, 
Aquaculture gains in stature, 25, 
Intensive aquaculture becomes the modern-day gold rush, 27, 
The North imports more, 29, 
The South exports more, 31, 
France feeds off the South, 33, 
Artisanal fishing creates jobs, 35, 
Artisanal fishworkers are growing in number, 37, 
The role of women is ignored, 39, 
Quotas and fisheries mismanagement in the North, 41, 
SECTION 2 KEY ISSUES, 43, 
Globalization is spreading, 45, 
Multinationals play a powerful role, 47, 
Fishing helps repay Third World debt, 49, 
Too much capital invested in global fisheries, 51, 
Scarce and highly prized fishery resources, 53, 
India is caught between the devil and the deep blue sea, 55, 
Post-harvest losses are considerable, 57, 
Coastal regions under threat, 59, 
Mangroves are in danger, 61, 
The growth of sport fishing, 63, 
Exclusive economic zones take effect, 65, 
Environmental groups turn on the pressure, 67, 
Environmental laws: eco-protection or barriers to trade?, 69, 
Conflicts erupt more and more frequently, 71, 
Blue Europe is a huge market, 73, 
Fisheries agreements have a commercial bias, 75, 
Aquaculture competes in the market for fish, 77, 
Individual transferable quotas (ITQs), 79, 
SECTION 3 WHAT NEEDS TO BE DONE, 81, 
Artisanal fishworkers must be organized, 83, 
The need for international co-operation, 85, 
Women's roles must be recognized, 87, 
The environment must be protected, 89, 
Highly complex systems must be managed well, 91, 
Management objectives should be rationalized, 93, 
Participatory management, 95, 
Make the best of fish as food, 97, 
Choose environmentally sound and selective fishing techniques, 99, 
Kerala bans trawling, 101, 
Limit by-catches, 103, 
Promote extensive aquaculture, 105, 
Regulate the markets, 107, 
How free and fair is the free market?, 109, 
Review fisheries agreements, 111, 
Implement a code of conduct for responsible fisheries, 113, 
GLOSSARY, 115, 
BIBLIOGRAPHY, 122,

CHAPTER 1

FISHERIES TODAY

Fish is an essential food

All over the world, fish plays a vital role in feeding millions of people. In 1994, the average per capita availability of fish was only 13.6 kg per person per year. In some populations, the average consumption is already much higher. In countries of the Southern hemisphere, the consumption is 9 kg per person per year, a third of the developed countries' level of 27 kg per person per year.

Nonetheless, in most Asian and African countries, fish is a major food item, representing, respectively, 29 per cent and 25 per cent of the supply of animal protein in local diets. In certain landlocked African countries endowed with lakes, such as Chad, Uganda and Zaire, fish accounts for 30–40 per cent of the protein intake. Of the 40 countries scattered across the globe where fish is the principal source of protein, 39 are in the South.

As food, fish is particularly healthy and nutritious. Quite apart from its calorific value, it is a source of easily digestible, high-quality protein. Rich in amino acids, fish also contains calcium, phosphorus, iron, and vitamins A and D. It can enhance the diet of poor populations, where cereals and root vegetables or tubers comprise the staple food. As a supplement, fish thus helps prevent diseases associated with nutritional imbalances. Moreover, fish is relatively inexpensive. In Africa and Asia, fish often costs less than meat. At the fish auction in Abidjan, Ivory Coast, for instance, prices range from 130 CFA francs per kilogram for sardines to 250 CF A francs for threadfin, while prices for meat range from 250 to 1000 CFA francs (see Conserver et transformer le poisson, CTA-GRET, 1993).

Unfortunately, in the poorest countries, domestic consumption of marine produce is often hampered by the bias towards exports of fish products from South to North, as well as by the demographic growth.

Consumption levels are unequal

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that, in 1994, the global average fish consumption was 13.6 kg per person per year. But behind this figure lies a wide variation. Developed countries consume much more than so-called Third World countries – 27 kg per person per year, compared with 9 kg per person per year. The disparity is even starker if regional averages are compared. Japan, as a major fish consuming country, has a per capita fish consumption of over 70 kg per person per year, while in Iceland the per capita availability of fish is 90 kg per annum. By contrast, per capita fish consumption in Eastern Europe is very low: below 10 kg. In the South consumption figures are close to average. Consumption in South-east Asia and Latin America, at 9 kg per person per year, is only marginally higher than in sub-Saharan Africa, estimated at 7 kg per person per year.

Closer scrutiny at the national level reveals other disparities. The consumption figures for South Korea (52 kg per person per year), the Congo (35 kg per person per year) or the Philippines (34 kg per person per year) are all way above the average for the South. In the same way Iceland is way above average for countries in the North. At the other end of the scale, a resident of Guinea Bissau consumes only 3 kg per year, and in Germany or the Netherlands consumption is only 14 kg per person per year. Following the collapse of the former Soviet Union, per capita fish consumption in the Russian federation has slumped from 29 kg in 1989 to 9 kg in 1993. An important reason for this is the reduction in distant water activities.

Consumption of fish varies with a multitude of factors, such as the scale of production, price, branding and life-styles, among others. Nevertheless, the global demand for fish and marine products continues to grow steadily. This inevitably results in increased fishing effort.

The productivity of oceans varies

While the size of the oceans may give the impression of unlimited resource wealth, more than 90 per cent of the marine fish catch actually comes from only 10 per cent of the oceans – the continental shelf areas (9.9 per cent) and the upwelling zones (0.1 per cent) which tend to occur at the edge of the continental shelf.

As the marine biological cycle requires four elements – light, carbon dioxide, oxygen and nutrient salts – and since these occur in greater abundance over the continental shelf, most of the world's fishing takes place in these areas. Thus, countries which have the widest expanse of continental shelf enjoy a considerable advantage.

By contrast, the fishery productivity of the open oceans has been compared to that of deserts. This is a...

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