CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Sound, accurate and reliable measurements, be they physical, chemical or biological in nature, are essential to the functioning of modern society. Without them, industries, particularly high technology ones, cannot operate, trade is impaired by disputes, healthcare becomes empirical and legislation, ranging from environmental and worker protection to the operation of the Common Agricultural Policy and the Single Market, cannot be successfully implemented. For these reasons, advanced nations spend up to 6% of their GNP on measurements and measurement related operations.
Measurements hence affect the daily lives of every European citizen. Often the results of measurements or chemical analyses are taken for granted, e.g. in our direct contact with measuring devices when we buy food or consume gas and electricity at home. The importance of accurate measurements creates particular concern in specific cases, e.g. when food is tested to check whether it has been contaminated by poisonous substances or when blood is analysed as part of a hospital check-up.
It is precisely because measurements affect everyone that regulations (either national or European) are established in order to ensure that the measurements and chemical analyses are performed in a reliable way and therefore that consumer interests are properly protected. The need for harmonization of measurement systems has been recognized – some of them centuries ago – e.g. the verification of weights and measures to ensure fair trades and the adoption of the metric system now known as "Système International" (SI).
A considerable number of measurements are, of course, not directly evident to the general public. These concern the quality of products which determine, for example, the prices of food and/or feedstuffs; this quality is not open to bargaining but must be measured with the same accuracy and reliability in every country so that arguments about a product's acceptability are avoided and hence that a proper functioning of the Single Market may be ensured.
1.1 Need for Method Performance Evaluation
The harmonization of measurements and technical specifications is a continuous process, and is achieved either by means of Community Directives or the establishment of European Norms. However, this does not solve all the problems. Indeed, the measurements and analyses required for the implementation of these Norms and Directives are sometimes so difficult that, even when applying the same method, laboratories may still find very different results. It is obvious that such a disagreement between laboratories does not allow the Norms and Directives to be respected and therefore these have no harmonization effects. As a consequence, measures to evaluate and guarantee the quality of a laboratory's performance were established involving quality assurance rules and guidelines (e.g. Good Laboratory Practice, ISO 9000 and EN 45000 standard series), accreditation systems and the production of certified reference materials (CRMs).
Quality issues related to analytical measurements have been described in full detail in several books [1–3] and highlighted several principles, e.g. validation of methods, quality assurance protocols incorporating the use of CRMs, independent assessment of method performance by participation in proficiency testing schemes, and accreditation. Method performance studies also represent a very important aspect to evaluate the state-of-the-art of a particular type of analysis at the development stage (e.g. for testing the applicability of a standard method) or to improve the quality of measurements, e.g. prior to the certification of reference materials.
1.2 EC Initiatives Related to Measurement Quality
In order to eliminate disputes arising from doubtful measurements, the Commission of the European Communities established the Community Bureau of Reference (BCR) about 25 years ago to encourage and support technical collaboration between the laboratories of EC Member States. In this way, the Community helped laboratories in the Member States to provide accurate and reliable measurements in those sectors which are vital to the Community as a whole: trade, agriculture, food, industrial products, environment, health and consumer protection [4].
This collaborative effort on measurements was substantially increased within the second Framework Programme (Applied Metrology and Chemical Analysis, 1987–1992). It was likely to expand since the Community had embarked on an ambitious programme to unify its internal market. Major efforts were indeed required to harmonize a wider range of technical standards and measurements throughout the Community so that companies could be sure they were competing on equal terms in each Member State. In this context, it became essential that the accuracy of results be proven wherever the measurements or analyses were performed. The establishment of laboratory networks was a successful tool for the improvement of the quality of a wide variety of measurements performed in Europe. In turn, these collaborative efforts facilitated European cohesion.
To pursue this action within the Third Framework Programme (1990–1994), the European Community has implemented the Measurements and Testing programme which, by addressing the issues highlighted above, aimed to contribute to the harmonization and improvement of methods of measurement and analysis when these methods were not sufficiently accurate and laboratories obtained differing results. Through this harmonization, the programme aimed to contribute to the ease of circulation of agricultural and industrial products in the Community, to improvements in the means of monitoring environment and health and to the resolution of the new challenges faced by industry. The aims of the Measurements and Testing programme were also to improve the competitive position of European industry by promoting industrial innovation, to support pre-normative research and other technical support necessary for the development and application policies (Internal Market, environment, agriculture, health, etc., and support to activities of CEN, CENELEC, ETSI, etc.) and to support the further development of the measurement infrastructure of Europe (coordination of national activities, promotion of good measurement practices throughout Europe, etc.) [5].
The Measurements and Testing Programme has developed into a wider programme called Standards, Measurements and Testing (SM&T) within the Fourth Framework Programme (1994–1998). This programme aims, through...
